Turning from the Ethics treatises to their sequel, the Politics, the
reader is brought down to earth. “Man is a political animal,” Aristotle
observes; human beings are creatures of flesh and blood, rubbing shoulders with
each other in cities and communities. Like his work in zoology, Aristotle’s
political studies combine observation and theory. He and his students
documented the constitutions of 158 states—one of which, The Constitution of
Athens, has survived on papyrus. The aim of the Politics, Aristotle says, is to
investigate, on the basis of the constitutions collected, what makes for good
government and what makes for bad government and to identify the factors
favourable or unfavourable to the preservation of a constitution.
Aristotle asserts that all communities aim at some good. The state
(polis), by which he means a city-state such as Athens, is the highest kind of
community, aiming at the highest of goods. The most primitive communities are
families of men and women, masters and slaves. Families combine to make a
village, and several villages combine to make a state, which is the first
self-sufficient community. The state is no less natural than the family; this
is proved by the fact that human beings have the power of speech, the purpose
of which is “to set forth the expedient and inexpedient, and therefore likewise
the just and the unjust.” The foundation of the state was the greatest of
benefactions, because only within a state can human beings fulfill their
potential.
Government, Aristotle says, must be in the hands of one, of a few, or of
the many; and governments may govern for the general good or for the good of
the rulers. Government by a single person for the general good is called
“monarchy”; for private benefit, “tyranny.” Government by a minority is
“aristocracy” if it aims at the state’s best interest and “oligarchy” if it
benefits only the ruling minority. Popular government in the common interest
Aristotle calls “polity”; he reserves the word “democracy” for anarchic mob
rule.
If a community contains an individual or family of outstanding
excellence, then, Aristotle says, monarchy is the best constitution. But such a
case is very rare, and the risk of miscarriage is great, for monarchy corrupts
into tyranny, which is the worst constitution of all. Aristocracy, in theory,
is the next-best constitution after monarchy (because the ruling minority will
be the best-qualified to rule), but in practice Aristotle preferred a kind of
constitutional democracy, for what he called “polity” is a state in which rich
and poor respect each other’s rights and the best-qualified citizens rule with
the consent of all.
Two elements of Aristotle’s teaching affected European political
institutions for many centuries: his justification of slavery and his condemnation
of usury. Some people, Aristotle says, think that the rule of master over slave
is contrary to nature and therefore unjust. But they are quite wrong: a slave
is someone who is by nature not his own property but someone else’s. Aristotle
agrees, however, that in practice much slavery is unjust, and he speculates
that, if nonliving machines could be made to carry out menial tasks, there
would be no need for slaves as living tools. Nevertheless, some people are so
inferior and brutish that it is better for them to be controlled by a master
than to be left to their own devices.
Although not himself an aristocrat, Aristotle had an aristocratic
disdain for commerce. Our possessions, he says, have two uses, proper and
improper. Money too has a proper and an improper use; its proper use is to be
exchanged for goods and services, not to be lent out at interest. Of all the
methods of making money, “taking a breed from barren metal” is the most
unnatural.
No comments:
Post a Comment