History
K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in
English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province).
He lived during the Chou dynasty, an era known for its moral laxity. Later in
life, he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers.
He accumulated a small band of students during this time. The last years of his
life were spent back in Lu, where he devoted himself to teaching.
His writings deal primarily with individual
morality and ethics, and the proper exercise of political power by the rulers.
In China, and some other areas in Asia, the
social ethics and moral teachings of Confucius are blended with the Taoist
communion with nature and Buddhist concepts of the afterlife, to form a set of
complementary, peacefully co-existent and ecumenical religions.
There are approximately 6 million Confucians in
the world. About 26,000 live in North America; almost all of the remainder are
found throughout China and the rest of Asia.
Beliefs:
Confucian ethical teachings include the
following values:
1. Li: includes ritual, propriety,
etiquette, etc.
2. Hsiao: love within the family: love
of parents for their children and of children for their parents
3. Yi: righteousness
4. Xin: honesty and trustworthiness
5. Jen: benevolence, humaneness towards
others; the highest Confucian virtue
6. Chung: loyalty to the state, etc.
Practices:
Confucianism does not contain all of the
elements of some other religions, like Christianity and Islam. It is primarily
an ethical system to which rituals at important times during one's lifetime
have been added.
Since the time of the Han dynasty (206 CE) four
life passages have been recognized and regulated by Confucian tradition:
Birth: The
T'ai-shen (spirit of the fetus) protects the expectant woman and deals harshly
with anyone who harasses the mother to be. A special procedure is followed when
the placenta is disposed of. The mother is given a special diet and is allowed
rest for a month after delivery. The mother's family of origin supplies all the
items required by the baby on the first, fourth and twelfth monthly anniversary
of the birth.
Reaching maturity: This life passage is no longer being celebrated, except in traditional
families. It takes the form of a group meal in which the young adult is served
chicken.
Marriage:
This is performed in six stages:
1. Proposal: the couple exchange the
eight characters: the year, month, day and hour of each of their births. If any
unpropitious event occurs within the bride-to-be's family during the next three
days, then the woman is believed to have rejected the proposal.
2. Engagement: after the wedding day is
chosen, the bride announces the wedding with invitations and a gift of cookies
made in the shape of the moon.
3. Dowry: This is carried to the
groom's home in a solemn procession. The bride-price is then sent to the bride
by the groom's parents. Gifts by the groom to the bride, equal in value to the
dowry, are sent to her.
4. Procession: The groom visits the
bride's home and brings her back to his place, with much fanfare.
5. Marriage and Reception: The couple
recite their vows, toast each other with wine, and then take center stage at a banquet.
6. Morning after: The bride serves
breakfast to the groom's parents, who then reciprocate.
Death: At
death, the relatives cry out aloud to inform the neighbors. The family starts
mourning and puts on clothes made of a course material. The corpse is washed
and placed in a coffin. Mourners bring incense and money to offset the cost of
the funeral. Food and significant objects of the deceased are placed into the
coffin. A Buddhist or Taoist priest (or even a Christian minister) performs the
burial ritual. Friends and family follow the coffin to the cemetery, along with
a willow branch which symbolizes the soul of the person who has died. The
latter is carried back to the family altar where it is used to
"install" the spirit of the deceased. Liturgies are performed on the
7th, 9th, 49th day after the burial and on the first and third anniversaries of
the death.
Schools of Confucianism
There are six schools: Han Confucianism,
Neo-Confucianism, Contemporary Neo-Confucianism, Korean Confucianism, Japanese
Confucianism and Singapore Confucianism.
Sacred Texts
These were assembled by Chu Hsi (1130-1200 CE)
during the Song dynasty. They include:
1. The Si Shu or Four Books:
2. The Lun, Yu the Analects of
Confucius
3. The Chung Yung or the Doctrine of
the Mean
4. The Ta Hsueh or the Great Learning
5. The Meng Tzu the writings of Meng
Tzu (371-289 BCE) a philosopher who, like Confucius, traveled from state to
state conversing with the government rulers
6. The Wu Jing or Five Classics:
7.Shu Ching or Classic of History:
writings and speeches fromChinese rulers
8.The Shih Ching or Classic of Odes: 300 poems
and songs
9. The I Ching or Classic of Changes: the
description of a divinitory system involving 64 hexagrams. The hexagrams are
symbols composed of broken and continuous lines; one is selected to foretell
the future based on the casting of 49 sticks
10. The Ch'un Ch'iu or Spring and Autumn Annals: a
history of the state of Lu from 722 to 484 BCE.
11. The Li Ching or Classic of Rites: a group
of three books on the LI the rites of propriety
Confucian Thought
K’ ung Fu-Tzu. Leadership of the Confucian
school centers around its foremost teacher, K'ung Fu-Tzu (551-479 B.C.). Though
not the founder per se, as the transmitter and true embodiment of the Confucian
Way, "Kung the Master," the "supreme editor of Chinese
culture," is without peer.
His integrity of person and perseverance in
answer to a call set the example for followers to emulate. His vision centered
on respect children show to their parents; the high regard given elders and
lawful authority figures; and an appreciation for learning, protocol and
ceremony. Confucian practice became the characteristic world view and practice
of the Chinese people for over 2,000 years.
Mencius. Mencius (372-289 B.C.) systematized
Confucius's teaching. Believing in the innate goodness of all people, he
popularized the 'five relationships' (father-son, ruler-minister, husband-wife,
old-young, friend-friend) concept.
Hsun-Tzu. Hsun-tzu (shuhn-dyuh, 298-238 B.C.)
was another early leader in Confucian philosophy. Thinking all individuals were
essentially evil, he promoted the cultivation of ritual as antidote to
humankind's depravity.
Kung te Cheng. Today, Kung te Cheng (b. 1920),
a direct descendant of Confucius and resident of Taiwan, is a leading
spokesperson for Confucian values.
Sun-tzu . The Sun-tzu is a Chinese classic on
military tactics and strategy. It dates from the era 400-320 B.C. The Sun-tzu
shows how superior mental attitudes can effect military/political change.
Emphasis is on unsettling the enemy’s mind and upsetting his plans.
Confucian Belief
" The fundamental concern of the Confucian
tradition is learning to be human."
--Tu Wei-ming.
Three
dimensions of the human condition--the self, community, and tradition--are
expressed in Confucian spirituality.
Self-cultivation. A healthy body,
mind-and-heart alert, pure soul and brilliant spirit, are seen as good for
their own sake. This self-transformation draws resources from cultural
tradition, a sympathetic society, the energy of nature and power of heaven.
Confucius sought dignity for all humankind, a sense of respect for oneself and
understanding of the humanity found in all.
Tu Wei-ming, Professor of Chinese History and
Philosophy at Harvard University, identifies three characteristics of the
"human rootedness" of Confucian thought.
1.
Cheng designates the state of
absolute quiet and inactivity, being sincere, authentic, real. One can be
genuinely human without engaging in a flurry of activities.
2. Shen signifies spirituality. Crucial
Shen concerns are the "heavenly aspect of the soul" and its
development.
3. Chi (jee). Based upon the cumulative
effect of self-transformation, Chi, an "originating power, an inward
spring of activity...a critical point at which one's direction toward good or
evil is set" can be identified and used to further 'flourish the soul.'
(Tu Wei-ming)
Community.
The community is necessary for this self-transformation to occur. It broadens
and deepens the self, expressing the fundamental integration of all segments of
our world. Once rooted, the soul contributes to the four visions that identify
the classic Confucian vision of the world. The four visions are:
1.
ability to respond to the world in a poetic sense
2. social sense of ritual as means for verbal
and non-verbal communication within the "human community"
3. historical ability to relate to the
collective memory
4. politics as responsive and responsible to
the whole community
Tradition.
Throughout their shared history spanning millenniums, the people of China
valued harmony and mutual consensus rather than conflict and individual
exertion. Historian Barbara Tuchman writes,
"The people of China...stayed in one
place, enclosed by a series of walls, around house and village or city. Tied to
the soil, living under the authority of the family, growing their food among
the graves of their ancestors, they were perpetuators of a system in which
harmony was more important than struggle."
During Confucius’s life, societal conflict,
rather than harmony, was the norm. Believing there had been an earlier period
of prosperity and peace in China Confucius advocated a return to the traditions
and values of that earlier time. These traditions--which maintained peace and
social order--became the focus of Confucian thought.
Professor Samuel Huntington describes China’s
reliance upon her traditional (Confucian) culture even today.
"Since the late 1970s, Chinese leadership chose a new version of Ti-Yong:
capitalism and involvement in the world economy, on the one hand, combined with
political authoritarianism and recommitment to traditional Chinese culture, on
the other." At the end of the superpower competition, China "set two
goals: (1) to become the champion of Chinese culture...and (2) to resume its
historical position, which it lost in the nineteenth century, as the [supreme]
power in East Asia."
Confucian Texts
The Five Classics:
The Four Books. Chu Hsi (joo-shee--A.D.
1130-1200) emphasized the Four Books: Ta-hsueh, Chung Yung, Lun Yu, and Meng
Tzu. Two chapters, originally from the Li chi, comprise books one and two of
the four Books (the Ta-hsueh [great learning] and Chung Yung [Doctrine of the
Mean].)
The Lun Yu (luhn yoo--Discussed Sayings) is
known to most Western audiences as the Analects (AN ehlekts) or recorded
actions and saying of Confucius. Most of the twenty Analects books describe
Confucius as he answers questions, discusses issues and lives his beliefs.
The Meng Tzu by Mencius systematized Confucian teaching, advocating study of the Classics,
practicing moral disciplines and developing natural ying/yang energies.
Shu-ching (shoo-jing--"Book of
History/Documents")
This text compiles historical documents of the
ninth to sixth centuries, B.C. It describes the political vision of Confucian
thought, outlining an ethical foundation for humane government.
Shih-ching (shuhr-jing--"Book of
Poetry/Songs")
Common human feelings, expressed in some 300
poems and religious hymns from the early Chou Dynasty (1027-402 B.C.), comprise
the Shih-ching.
Li chi (lee-jee--"Book of Rites")
Consciousness of duty pervades the ceremonial
rituals collected in Li chi. A cooperative society, organized by four principle
occupations--scholar, farmer, artisan, merchant--is the ideal.
Ch’ un-ch’ iu (chuhn chyoh--"Spring and
Autumn Annals")
This text emphasizes history and the
significance of the collective memory in individual and societal
identification.
Confucian Ethics
" It is these ethics which even today we
meet all over East Asia."
The question, "What is the character of
the social life Confucian education should engender?", addresses the
ethical center of Confucianism. Historian of world religions, Huston Smith,
specifies the following four terms which designate this heart of the Confucian
ethical tradition.
Jen , chun-tzu , li and wen alike are ethical/motivational topics,
influential in the folk/Confucian tradition of the family, government
bureaucracy, and village life especially.
Jen (ruhn). This basic virtue, as outlined in
the Analects, signifies benevolence, humaneness and human-heartedness.
Cultivating courtesy and unselfishness promotes the dignity of human life
wherever it appears. Public displays focus upon diligence, steadfastness, and a
magnanimity of heart which pursues a mission, that of redeeming the world
through human effort. This sense of mission makes the world safer and more
livable, improves the quality of life, and transforms society into a moral
community. Jen is not only a humanistic objective, but also a profoundly
spiritual goal of Confucian ethics.
Chun-tzu (juhn-dyuh). This term refers to the
mature, cultivated, humane person. It is the opposite of petty, mean-spirited
individuals. A chun-tzu person aims to live by the highest of ethical
standards. He/she seeks to answer, by action and attitude, the question
"what can I do to accommodate others?"
Li (ritual,
mores, ceremony). Li
finds its origin in religious ceremony and rite. Its broader meaning describes
the way things are done. Attitude becomes as important as correct conduct.
Manners, an order to behavior and family relations, honoring elders, and the
concept of the golden mean, all describe Li. The family, still the single most
important social institution in imparting ways of learning to be human, is the
framework for establishing graceful interactions with others. It is the glue
for social solidarity.
Filial piety--relations encompassing not only
children to their parents but generations to each other--is the underpinning
for all other interactions. Cultivation of genuine feelings for parents and
siblings--rather than estrangement and alienation between them--is the
principle. This family/communal orientation also plays itself out in salvation
schemes. Individualistic approaches are frowned upon. Family, society, country
or the whole world must be included in such appeals. We see the depths of
family devotion in death and grieving practices. After a parent dies, the child
(son) may retire from public affairs, simplify living arrangements and devote
himself to grieving for as long as three years. Li further expresses itself
through the five relationships.
Father-son
Ruler-minister
Husband-wife
Old-young, and
Friend-friend
These bonds and practices are not only critical
to a well-ordered society but provide a training ground for the effective
development of a humane, flourishing soul. Critics sometimes describe the
"three bonds"-- ruler over minister, father over son and husband over
wife--as promoting despotic, autocratic, patriarchal, and male-chauvinistic
practice. A Confucian response sees these bonds not as confining or limiting
practices. Rather, when seen from a broader perspective, the patterns of social
stability, maintenance of the social order, and a world at peace overcome
particular frustrations of such hierarchical relations.
Wen refers to the "arts of
peace"--music, art, poetry, the aesthetic and spiritual aptitudes. The
mark of a cultured person is the knowledge and appreciation of culture,
breeding, and grace. The Analects record:
"By poetry the mind is aroused; from music
the finish is received. The odes stimulate the mind. They induce
self-contemplation. They teach the art of sensibility. They help to restrain
resentment. They bring home the duty of serving one's parents and one's
prince." (XVIII:9)
Neo-Confucian Practice
The neo-Confucian movement, developed in
response to Buddhism, was dominant in East Asia from the twelfth to early
twentieth century. It honed and perfected early Confucian thought.
Chu Hsi (joo shee, 1130-1200), with his School
of Principle, saw a pattern running through all material. By practicing
asceticism or moral discipline, followers could ascertain this inner design.
Wang Yang-ming (wahng yahng-ming, 1472-1529),
another major neo-Confucianist, established the School of Mind. Innate
knowledge, found within the mind, is the basis on which to view humanity,
rather than pursuing external patterns.
A Third Wave Confucian movement seeks to
explain the current economic revival in East Asia in terms of application of
Confucian principles to the post-modern world. This school of thought seeks to
outmaneuver competitors, based on superior self-knowledge and knowledge of
others.
Harvard professor Tu Wei-ming discusses the
impact of Confucian thought on the East Asian economy. After describing the
economic growth taking place in East Asia, Dr. Wei-ming discusses the human
factor involved in the process:
"What they [East Asian] have shown is that
culture matters, that values people cherish or unconsciously uphold provide
guidance for their actions, that the motivational structure of people is not
only relevant but also crucial to their economic ethics, and that the
life-orientation of a society makes a difference in the economic behavior of
its people."
Women
The Confucian Tradition. "Traditional Chinese society was male-centered. Sons were
preferred to daughters, women were expected to be subordinate to fathers,
husbands, and sons. A young woman had little voice in the decision of her
marriage partner (neither did a young man). When married, it was she who left
her natal family and community and went to live in a family and community of
strangers where she was subordinate to her mother-in-law. Far fewer women were
educated than men, and sketchy but consistent demographic evidence would seem
to show that female infants and children had higher death rates and less chance
of surviving to adulthood than males. In extreme cases, female infants were the
victims of infanticide, and daughters were sold, as chattels, to brothels or to
wealthy families. Bound feet, which were customary even for peasant women,
symbolized the painful constraints of the female role." (L. of C. Country
Studies: China.).
Author John Hersey, in his novel The Call,
elaborates on the practice of foot binding.
"A binder had come on her monthly visit to
wash and rebind the feet of a little girl of about eight... The binder unwound
wide bandages and finally the ‘golden lilies’ were uncovered...The toes had
been relentlessly curled back under the soles...sometimes bones were broken,
but they mended while bound... The little girl had been given to believe that
she was a person of great importance, to be inspected in this way. She never
whimpered, but when the work was done, she sat holding her feet in her
hands...When she was fully grown, the binder said, her feet would be very
beautiful...she would walk like a willow, the binder said, with seductive
mincing steps...so as to cause great excitement among all the young men!"
Confucian practice concerning women--delegating
their position to that of subservience to men--stems in part from the following
nature of its thought.
Yin/yang.
Yin and Yang interact harmoniously. As part of this balance, traditionally men
were associated with "yang," women with "yin." Yin displays
qualities of darkness, cold, death , ghosts, graves and fear--often traits
acquiring a negative status. The linkage of the feminine with "yin"
seems to color women in this negative light as well. Over the centuries, such
thought influenced practice towards them.
Family Filial piety--the relations guiding children with their parents and past generations--
delegated responsibilities and importance to eldest sons. Two of the five
relationships--father/son and husband/wife--promote social mores of male
superiority. The woman’s status becomes one where she obeys and serves her
parents, her husband and husband’s parents, and produces a male heir.
The ideal woman becomes someone who is
retiring, silent and fertile. She possesses inner strength and is known for her
forbearance and patient sense of restraint. In South Korea, the cumulative
effect of the Confucian tradition led Harvard professor Tu Wei-ming to write,
the "blatant insensitivity in deprecating gender equality reflects an East
Asian mentality with deep Confucian roots."
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