French philosopher,
mathematician and scientist
Pierre Gassendi, Gassendi also
spelled Gassend (born Jan. 22, 1592, Champtercier, Provence, France—died Oct.
24, 1655, Paris) French philosopher, scientist, and mathematician, who revived
Epicureanism as a substitute for Aristotelianism, attempting in the process to
reconcile mechanistic atomism with the Christian belief in an infinite God.
Early
life and career
Born into a family of
commoners, Gassendi received his early education at Digne and Reiz. He studied
at universities in Digne and Aix-en-Provence and received a doctorate in
theology at the university in Avignon in 1614. After being ordained a priest in
1616 he was appointed professor of philosophy at Aix-en-Provence. There he
delivered critical lectures on the thought of Aristotle from 1617 to 1622, when
the new Jesuit authorities of the university, who disapproved of Gassendi’s
anti-Aristotelianism, compelled him to leave. Gassendi’s work Exercitationes
paradoxicae adversus Aristoteleos (“Paradoxical Exercises Against the
Aristotelians”), the first part of which was published in 1624, contains an
attack on Aristotelianism and an early version of his mitigated skepticism.
Gassendi thereafter engaged in many scientific studies with his patron,
Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc, until the latter’s death in 1637. A
considerable portion of his researches during this period involved astronomical
observations, including his discovery in 1631 of the perihelion of Mercury (the
point of the planet’s closest approach to the Sun).
Skepticism
and atomism
In 1641 the theologian and
mathematician Marin Mersenne invited Gassendi and several other eminent
thinkers to contribute comments on the manuscript of René Descartes’s
Meditations (1641); Gassendi’s comments, in which he argued that Descartes had
failed to establish the reality and certainty of innate ideas, were published
in the second edition of the Meditations (1642) as the fifth set of objections
and replies. Gassendi enlarged upon these criticisms in his Disquisitio
metaphysica, seu duitationes et instantiae adversus Renati Cartesii
metaphysicam et responsa (1644; “Metaphysical Disquisition; or, Doubts and
Instances Against the Metaphysics of René Descartes and Responses”).
In 1645 Gassendi was appointed
professor of mathematics at the Collège Royal in Paris. During the remainder of
the decade he published a work on the new astronomy, Institutio astronomica
juxta hypotheseis tam veteram quam Copernici et Tychonis Brahei (1647;
“Astronomical Instruction According to the Ancient Hypotheses as Well as Those
of Copernicus and Tycho Brahe”), as well as two of his three major works on
Epicurean philosophy, De vita et moribus Epicuri (1647; “On the Life and Death
of Epicurus”) and Animadversiones in decimum librum Diogenis Laertii, qui est
de vita, moribus, placitisque Epicuri (1649; “Observations on Book X of
Diogenes Laërtius, Which Is About the Life, Morals, and Opinions of Epicurus”).
In his final Epicurean work,
Syntagma philosophicum (“Philosophical Treatise”), published posthumously in
1658, Gassendi attempted to find what he called a middle way between skepticism
and dogmatism. He argued that, while metaphysical knowledge of the “essences”
(inner natures) of things is impossible, by relying on induction and the
information provided by “appearances” one can acquire probable knowledge of the
natural world that is sufficient to explain and predict experience. Adopting a
view characteristic of ancient Skepticism, Gassendi held that experienced
events can be taken as signs of what is beyond experience. Smoke suggests fire,
sweat suggests that there are pores in the skin, and the multitude of events
suggests that there is an atomic world underlying them. The best theory of such
a world, in Gassendi’s opinion, is the ancient atomism expounded by Epicurus
(341–270 bce), according to which atoms are eternal, differently shaped, and
moving at different speeds. Gassendi argued that such atoms must have some of
the physical features of the visible objects they constitute, such as
extension, size, shape, weight, and solidity. The atoms collide and
agglomerate, resulting in events in the perceptible world. A mechanical model
of atomic movement and agglomeration, ultimately based on experience, would
allow one to discover probabilistic empirical laws, to make predictions, and to
explain relationships between different kinds of phenomena. Because the
phenomenal world is thus related to the atomic world, there is no need to
explain events in terms of purposes, goals, or final causes, as in Scholastic
and Aristotelian teleology.
Gassendi believed that there
was no conflict between his mechanistic atomism and the doctrines of Roman
Catholicism; indeed, he took pains to emphasize their compatibility. Although
he was a heliocentrist, he presented his astronomical views in a way that made
them at least superficially consistent with the teachings of the church, which
had condemned Galileo for his heliocentrism in 1633.
Although Gassendi’s atomism
was as complete an account of nature as any other scientific theory of its
time, it was eventually replaced by the physics of Sir Isaac Newton. No
important discoveries are attributed to Gassendi’s scientific program.
Religious
and moral views
Gassendi rejected the
Epicurean account of the human soul, according to which it is material but composed
of lighter and more subtle atoms than those of other things. Souls are
genuinely immaterial, and their existence is known through faith. Likewise, his
theology, unlike Epicurus’s, did not conceive of God as a material body. God’s
existence is proved by the harmony evident in nature. Following Epicurus,
Gassendi held that the proper goal of human life is happiness, which consists
in the peace of the soul and the absence of bodily pain.
It has long been debated
whether Gassendi was really a secret libertine—a freethinker in matters of
religion and morals. Although he was a close associate of some notorious
religious skeptics and even took part in their retreats, he was also good
friends with some leading church figures, such as the theologian and mathematician
Marin Mersenne. Indeed, Gassendi and Mersenne had quite similar views about
science and its foundations. Gassendi’s associations with a wide range of other
intellectual figures, including Thomas Hobbes and Blaise Pascal, lend
themselves to varied interpretations.
Influence
and assessment
In 1648 Gassendi resigned his
post at the Collège Royal because of poor health. After nearly five years in
Provence he returned to Paris in 1653, taking up residence in the house of his
new patron, Henri-Louis Habert, lord of Montmor. He died there two years later.
Gassendi’s ideas were
extremely influential in the 17th century. Although his works were originally
published as huge Latin tomes, a French abridgement of them appeared in the
second half of the century, as did English translations of various excerpts.
His ideas were taught in Jesuit schools in France, in English universities, and
even in newly founded schools in North America. Because Gassendi’s
epistemological views seem to be echoed in major sections of John Locke’s Essay
Concerning Human Understanding (1690), one of the founding works of British
empiricism, some scholars have concluded that Locke was directly influenced by
Gassendi. It is interesting to note in this connection that the Syntagma was
published in English in Thomas Stanley’s History of Philosophy (1655–62), a
work that Locke knew. Locke also met some of Gassendi’s disciples during his
exile in France.
At the turn of the 21st
century there was growing interest in Gassendi’s critique of Cartesianism, and
his scientific researches were shedding new light on the early development of
botany, geology, and other fields. He is now regarded as an original thinker of
the first rank.
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