Albert Camus (7 November 1913 – 4 January 1960) was a French
philosopher, author, and journalist. His views contributed to the rise of the
philosophy known as absurdism. He wrote in his essay The Rebel that his whole
life was devoted to opposing the philosophy of nihilism while still delving
deeply into individual freedom. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature at the age
of 43 in 1957, the second youngest recipient in history.
Camus did not consider himself to be an existentialist despite usually
being classified as a follower of it, even in his lifetime.In a 1945 interview,
Camus rejected any ideological associations: "No, I am not an
existentialist. Sartre and I are always surprised to see our names
linked."
Camus was born in French Algeria to a Pied-Noir family and studied at
the University of Algiers, from which he graduated in 1936. In 1949, Camus
founded the Group for International Liaisons[6] to "denounce two
ideologies found in both the USSR and the USA"
Early Years
Less than a year after Camus was born, his father, an impoverished
worker, was killed in World War I during the First Battle of the Marne. His
mother, of Spanish descent, did housework to support her family. Camus and his
elder brother Lucien moved with their mother to a working-class district of
Algiers, where all three lived, together with the maternal grandmother and a
paralyzed uncle, in a two-room apartment. Camus’s first published collection of
essays, L’Envers et l’endroit (1937; “The Wrong Side and the Right Side”),
describes the physical setting of these early years and includes portraits of
his mother, grandmother, and uncle. A second collection of essays, Noces (1938;
“Nuptials”), contains intensely lyrical meditations on the Algerian countryside
and presents natural beauty as a form of wealth that even the very poor can
enjoy. Both collections contrast the fragile mortality of human beings with the
enduring nature of the physical world.
In 1918 Camus entered primary school and was fortunate enough to be
taught by an outstanding teacher, Louis Germain, who helped him to win a
scholarship to the Algiers lycée (high school) in 1923. (It was typical of
Camus’s sense of loyalty that 34 years later his speech accepting the Nobel
Prize for Literature was dedicated to Germain.) A period of intellectual
awakening followed, accompanied by great enthusiasm for sport, especially
football
(soccer), swimming, and boxing. In 1930, however, the first of several
severe attacks of tuberculosis put an end to his sporting career and
interrupted his studies. Camus had to leave the unhealthy apartment that had
been his home for 15 years, and, after a short period spent with an uncle,
Camus decided to live on his own, supporting himself by a variety of jobs while
registered as a philosophy student at the University of Algiers.
Camus’s Literary
Career
Throughout the 1930s, Camus broadened his interests. He read the French
classics as well as the writers of the day—among them André Gide, Henry de
Montherlant, André Malraux—and was a prominent figure among the young left-wing
intellectuals of Algiers. For a short period in 1934–35 he was also a member of
the Algerian Communist Party. In addition, he wrote, produced, adapted, and
acted for the Théâtre du Travail (Workers’ Theatre, later named the Théâtre de
l’Équipe), which aimed to bring outstanding plays to working-class audiences.
He maintained a deep love of the theatre until his death. Ironically, his plays
are the least-admired part of his literary output, although Le Malentendu
(Cross Purpose) and Caligula, first produced in 1944 and 1945, respectively,
remain landmarks in the Theatre of the Absurd. Two of his most enduring
contributions to the theatre may well be his stage adaptations of William
Faulkner’s Requiem for a Nun (Requiem pour une nonne; 1956) and Fyodor
Dostoyevsky’s The Possessed (Les Possédés; 1959).
In the two years before the outbreak of World War II, Camus served his
apprenticeship as a journalist with Alger-Républicain in many capacities,
including those of leader- (editorial-) writer, subeditor, political reporter,
and book reviewer. He reviewed some of Jean-Paul Sartre’s early literary works
and wrote an important series of articles analyzing social conditions among the
Muslims of the Kabylie region. These articles, reprinted in abridged form in
Actuelles III (1958), drew attention (15 years in advance) to many of the
injustices that led to the outbreak of the Algerian War in 1954. Camus took his
stand on humanitarian rather than ideological grounds and continued to see a
future role for France in Algeria while not ignoring colonialist injustices.
Marriage
In 1934, Camus married Simone Hié, but the marriage ended as a
consequence of infidelities on both sides. In 1935, he founded Théâtre du
Travail (Worker's Theatre), renamed Théâtre de l'Equipe (Theatre of the Team)
in 1937. It lasted until 1939. From 1937 to 1939 he wrote for a socialist
paper, Alger-Républicain. His work included a report on the poor conditions for
peasants in Kabylie, which apparently cost him his job. From 1939 to 1940, he
briefly wrote for a similar paper, Soir-Republicain. He was rejected by the
French army because of his tuberculosis.
In 1940, Camus married Francine Faure, a pianist and mathematician.
Although he loved her, he had argued passionately against the institution of
marriage, dismissing it as unnatural. Even after Francine gave birth to twins,
Catherine and Jean, on 5 September 1945, he continued to joke to friends that
he was not cut out for marriage. Camus had numerous affairs, particularly an
irregular and eventually public affair with the Spanish-born actress María
Casares, with whom he had an extensive correspondence.. In the same year, Camus
began to work for Paris-Soir magazine. In the first stage of World War II,
during the so-called Phoney War, Camus was a pacifist. While in Lyon during the
Wehrmacht occupation, on 15 December 1941, Camus read about the Paris execution
of Gabriel Péri; it crystallized his revolt against the Germans. He moved to
Bordeaux with the rest of the staff of Paris-Soir. In the same year he finished
The Stranger, his first novel, and The Myth of Sisyphus. He returned briefly to
Oran, Algeria, in 1942.
Literary Star
He enjoyed the most influence as a journalist during the final years of
the occupation of France and the immediate post-Liberation period. As editor of
the Parisian daily Combat, the successor of a Resistance newssheet run largely
by Camus, he held an independent left-wing position based on the ideals of
justice and truth and the belief that all political action must have a solid
moral basis. Later, the old-style expediency of both Left and Right brought
increasing disillusion, and in 1947 he severed his connection with Combat.
By now Camus had become a leading literary figure. L’Étranger (U.S.
title, The Stranger; British title, The Outsider), a brilliant first novel
begun before the war and published in 1942, is a study of 20th-century
alienation with a portrait of an “outsider” condemned to death less for
shooting an Arab than for the fact that he never says more than he genuinely
feels and refuses to conform to society’s demands. The same year saw the
publication of an influential philosophical essay, Le Mythe de Sisyphe (The
Myth of Sisyphus), in which Camus, with considerable sympathy, analyzed
contemporary nihilism and a sense of the “absurd.” He was already seeking a way
of overcoming nihilism, and his second novel, La Peste (1947; The Plague), is a
symbolical account of the fight against an epidemic in Oran by characters whose
importance lies less in the (doubtful) success with which they oppose the
epidemic than in their determined assertion of human dignity and fraternity.
Camus had now moved from his first main concept of the absurd to his other
major idea of moral and metaphysical “rebellion.” He contrasted this latter
ideal with politico-historical revolution in a second long essay, L’Homme
révolté (1951; The Rebel), which provoked bitter antagonism among Marxist
critics and such near-Marxist theoreticians as Jean-Paul Sartre. His other
major literary works are the technically brilliant novel La Chute (1956) and a
collection of short stories, L’Exil et le royaume (1957; Exile and the
Kingdom). La Chute reveals a preoccupation with Christian symbolism and
contains an ironical and witty exposure of the more complacent forms of secular
humanist morality.
In 1957, at the early age of 44, Camus received the Nobel Prize for
Literature. With characteristic modesty he declared that had he been a member
of the awarding committee his vote would certainly have gone to André Malraux.
Less than three years later he was killed in an automobile accident.
Philosophy
Existentialism
As one of the forefathers of existentialism, Camus focused most of his
philosophy around existential questions. The absurdity of life and its
inevitable ending (death) is highlighted in the very famous opening of the
novel The Stranger (1942): "Mother died today. Or maybe yesterday; I can't
be sure.". This alludes to his claim that life is engrossed by the absurd.
He believed that the absurd - life being void of meaning, or man's inability to
know that meaning if it were to exist - was something that man should embrace.
He argued that this crisis of self could cause a man to commit
"philosophical suicide"; choosing to believe in external sources that
give life (what he would describe as false) meaning. He claimed that religion
was the main culprit. If a man chose to believe in religion - that the meaning
of life was ascend to heaven, or some similar afterlife, that he committed
philosophical suicide by trying to escape the absurd.
Absurdism
Many writers have addressed the Absurd, each with his or her own
interpretation of what the Absurd is and what comprises its importance. For
example, Sartre recognizes the absurdity of individual experience, while
Kierkegaard explains that the absurdity of certain religious truths prevents us
from reaching God rationally. Camus regretted the continued reference to
himself as a "philosopher of the absurd". He showed less interest in
the Absurd shortly after publishing Le Mythe de Sisyphe (The Myth of Sisyphus).
To distinguish his ideas, scholars sometimes refer to the Paradox of the
Absurd, when referring to "Camus' Absurd".
His early thoughts appeared in his first collection of essays, L'Envers
et l'endroit (Betwixt and Between) in 1937. Absurd themes were expressed with
more sophistication in his second collection of essays, Noces (Nuptials), in
1938. In these essays Camus reflects on the experience of the Absurd. In 1942
he published the story of a man living an absurd life as L'Étranger (The
Stranger). In the same year he released Le Mythe de Sisyphe (The Myth of
Sisyphus), a literary essay on the Absurd. He also wrote a play about Caligula,
a Roman Emperor, pursuing an absurd logic. The play was not performed until
1945.
The turning point in Camus's attitude to the Absurd occurs in a
collection of four letters to an anonymous German friend, written between July
1943 and July 1944. The first was published in the Revue Libre in 1943, the
second in the Cahiers de Libération in 1944, and the third in the newspaper
Libertés, in 1945. The four letters were published as Lettres à un ami allemand
(Letters to a German Friend) in 1945, and were included in the collection
Resistance, Rebellion, and Death.
Ideas on the absurd
Camus presents the reader with dualisms such as happiness and sadness,
dark and light, life and death, etc. He emphasizes the fact that happiness is
fleeting and that the human condition is one of mortality; for Camus, this is
cause for a greater appreciation for life and happiness. In Le Mythe, dualism becomes
a paradox: we value our own lives in spite of our mortality and in spite of the
universe's silence. While we can live with a dualism (I can accept periods of
unhappiness, because I know I will also experience happiness to come), we
cannot live with the paradox (I think my life is of great importance, but I
also think it is meaningless). In Le Mythe, Camus investigates our experience
of the Absurd and asks how we live with it. Our life must have meaning for us
to value it. If we accept that life has no meaning and therefore no value,
should we kill ourselves?
In Le Mythe, Camus suggests that 'creation of meaning' would entail a
logical leap or a kind of philosophical suicide in order to find psychological
comfort. But Camus wants to know if he can
live with what logic and lucidity have uncovered – if one can build a
foundation on what one knows and nothing more. Creation of meaning is not a
viable alternative but a logical leap and an evasion of the problem. He gives
examples of how others would seem to make this kind of leap. The alternative
option, namely suicide, would entail another kind of leap, where one attempts
to kill absurdity by destroying one of its terms (the human being). Camus
points out, however, that there is no more meaning in death than there is in
life, and that it simply evades the problem yet again. Camus concludes that we
must instead "entertain" both death and the absurd, while never
agreeing to their terms.
Meursault, the absurdist hero of L'Étranger, has killed a man and is
scheduled to be executed. Caligula ends up admitting his absurd logic was wrong
and is killed by an assassination he has deliberately brought about. However,
while Camus possibly suggests that Caligula's absurd reasoning is wrong, the
play's anti-hero does get the last word, as the author similarly exalts
Meursault's final moments.Camus made a significant contribution to a viewpoint
of the Absurd, and always rejected nihilism as a valid response.If nothing had
any meaning, you would be right. But there is something that still has a
meaning. — Second Letter to a German Friend, December 1943.
Camus's understanding of the Absurd promotes public debate; his various
offerings entice us to think about the Absurd and offer our own contribution.
Concepts such as cooperation, joint effort and solidarity are of key importance
to Camus, though they are most likely sources of 'relative' versus 'absolute'
meaning. In The Rebel, Camus identifies rebellion (or rather, the values
indicated by rebellion) as a basis for human solidarity.
When he rebels, a man identifies himself with other men and so surpasses
himself, and from this point of view human solidarity is metaphysical. But for
the moment we are only talking of the kind of solidarity that is born in
chains.
The Myth of Sisyphus
Despite his opposition to the label, Camus addressed one of the
fundamental questions of existentialism: the problem of suicide.[43] He wrote,
"There is only one really serious philosophical question, and that is
suicide. Deciding whether or not life is worth living is to answer the
fundamental question in philosophy. All other questions follow from
that."[44] Camus viewed the question of suicide as arising naturally as a
solution to the absurdity of life.. In
The Myth of Sisyphus, Camus seeks to identify the kinds of life that could be
worth living despite their inherent meaninglessness.
Views on totalitarianism
Throughout his life, Camus spoke out against and actively opposed
totalitarianism in its many forms. Early on, Camus was active within the French
Resistance to the German occupation of France during World War II, even
directing the famous Resistance journal Combat. On the French collaboration
with Nazi occupiers he wrote: "Now the only moral value is courage, which
is useful here for judging the puppets and chatterboxes who pretend to speak in
the name of the people."After liberation, Camus remarked, "This
country does not need a Talleyrand, but a Saint-Just." The reality of the
bloody postwar tribunals soon changed his mind: Camus publicly reversed himself
and became a lifelong opponent of capital punishment.
Camus's well-known falling out with Sartre is linked to his opposition
to authoritarian communism. Camus detected a reflexive totalitarianism in the
mass politics espoused by Sartre in the name of Marxism. This was apparent in
his work L'Homme Révolté (The Rebel) which not only was an assault on the
Soviet police state, but also questioned the very nature of mass revolutionary politics
and ideas. Camus continued to speak out against the atrocities of the Soviet
Union, a sentiment captured in his 1957 speech The Blood of the Hungarians,
commemorating the anniversary of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, an uprising
crushed in a bloody assault by the Red Army.
Philhellenism, debts
to Greek classical thought
One further important, often neglected component of Camus' philosophical
and literary persona was his love of classical Greek thought and literature, or
philhellenism. This love looks back to his youthful encounters with Friedrich
Nietzsche, his teacher Jean Grenier, and his own sense of a
"Mediterranean" identity, based in a common experience of sunshine,
beaches, and living in proximity to the near-Eastern world. Camus' Diplomes
thesis (roughly like an MA thesis in most anglophone countries) was on the
transition between classical Greek and Roman, and Christian culture, featuring
chapters on the early Church, gnosticism, Plotinus and Saint Augustine's
"second revelation", bringing Greek philosophical conceptuality to
Christian revelation. Camus' early essay collection Noces (Nuptials) features
essays set amidst classical Roman ruins; as the Myth of Sisyphus and The Rebel
(which takes as its hero Prometheus) both are rooted in Camus' classical
paideia. The culmination of the latter work defends a "midday
thought" based in classical moderation or measure, in opposition to the
tendency of modern political ideologies to exclusively valorise race or class,
and to dream of a total redemptive revolution. Camus' conception of classical
moderation also has deep roots in his lifelong love of Greek tragic theatre,
about which he gave an intriguing address in Athens in 1956. He appealed to
Queen Elizabeth II for mercy for the young Greek anti-colonial freedom fighter
Michalis Karaolis, from Kypros (Chypre, Zypern), who was sentenced to death in
1956. Camus's letter was acquired at auction by Nasos Ktorides and donated to
the National Struggle Museum in Nicosia.
Legacy
As novelist and playwright, moralist and political theorist, Albert
Camus after World War II became the spokesman of his own generation and the
mentor of the next, not only in France but also in Europe and eventually the
world. His writings, which addressed themselves mainly to the isolation of man
in an alien universe, the estrangement of the individual from himself, the
problem of evil, and the pressing finality of death, accurately reflected the
alienation and disillusionment of the postwar intellectual. He is remembered,
with Sartre, as a leading practitioner of the existential novel. Though he
understood the nihilism of many of his contemporaries, Camus also argued the
necessity of defending such values as truth, moderation, and justice. In his
last works he sketched the outlines of a liberal humanism that rejected the
dogmatic aspects of both Christianity and Marxism.
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