Enchiridion by Epictetus

The Enchiridion or Handbook of Epictetus is a short manual of Stoic ethical advice compiled by Arrian, a 2nd-century disciple of the Greek philosopher Epictetus. The Enchiridion, or “Manual,” is a collection of Epictetus’ teachings that were compiled by his student Arrian around 108 AD2. Only four of the original eight books have survived. Epictetus’ philosophy is intensely practical. He directs his students to focus on their opinions, anxieties, passions, and desires so that they "never fail to obtain what they desire nor fall into what they avoid". True education consists in learning to distinguish what is ours from what does not belong to us and in learning to correctly assent or dissent from external impressions. The purpose of his teaching was to make people free and happy. The “Discourses” have been influential since they were written. Marcus Aurelius refers to them and quotes them. Since the 16th century, they have been translated into several languages and have been reprinted many times.

Epictetus (c. 50 – c. 135 AD) was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was born into slavery at Hierapolis, Phrygia (present-day Pamukkale, in western Turkey) and lived in Rome until his banishment, when he went to Nicopolis in northwestern Greece for the rest of his life. His teachings were written down and published by his pupil Arrian in his Discourses and Enchiridion. Epictetus taught that philosophy is a way of life and not simply a theoretical discipline. To Epictetus, all external events are beyond our control; we should accept whatever happens calmly and dispassionately. However, individuals are responsible for their own actions, which they can examine and control through rigorous self-discipline.

 

Ecce Homo and Nietzsche’s influence in Western culture

“Ecce Homo: How One Becomes What One Is” is a book by the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, originally published in 1888. It is one of Nietzsche’s last works and is considered one of the sharpest and most desperate autobiographical portraits in modern literature. In this book, Nietzsche reviews his entire life and the development of his philosophical thought. The title “Ecce Homo” is Latin for “Behold the man,” which is a phrase from the New Testament, spoken by Pontius Pilate when he presents a scourged Jesus Christ to a hostile crowd shortly before his Crucifixion. Nietzsche uses this title ironically, as he considered himself to be the antichrist.

 

In Nietzsche’s philosophy, the concept of the “Antichrist” refers to a rejection of Christianity and its values. Nietzsche wrote a book called “The Antichrist” (German: Der Antichrist), originally published in 1895, in which he criticizes Christianity as a whole, as well as modern concepts such as egalitarianism and democracy, which he sees as a persistent consequence of Christian ideals.

 

Nietzsche opposes the Christian concept of God because he believes that it degenerates into a contradiction of life. Instead of being its transfiguration and eternal affirmation, God becomes the negation of life. Nietzsche’s view of Jesus in “The Antichrist” follows Tolstoy in separating Jesus from the Church and emphasizing the concept of “non-resistance,” but uses it as a basis for his own development of the “psychology of the Savior.” Nietzsche does not demur of Jesus, conceding that he was the only one true Christian.

 

Nietzsche constructed his own history of Christianity with its roots in Judaism. It is framed not so much by the historical Jesus as by the distortions of him imposed by the early Christians, Paul in particular.

 

Nietzsche’s influence  in Western culture

 

Nietzsche  as a  philosopher, essayist, and cultural critic whose philosophy has exerted an enormous influence on Western philosophy and intellectual history. Nietzsche’s philosophy is complex and multi-layered, but at its core lies a belief in the power of the individual to create their own values and lead a fulfilling life. In his works, he rejected traditional morality and religion, arguing that they limit individual freedom and creativity.

 

Nietzsche’s influence on modern thought is difficult to overestimate. He was, in a sense, the first modern philosopher — the first to break with the Aristotelian tradition and explore new avenues of thought. His ideas on power, knowledge and the human condition have been enormously influential in the 20th and 21st centuries. Some of his most famous ideas include the concept of the “Übermensch” or “Superman”, which has been enormously influential in 20th-century thinking about human potential; the idea of the “Will to Power”, which has been taken up by existentialists and post-modernists; and the doctrine of “eternal recurrence”, which suggests that life is a cycle of constant repetition.

 

Nietzsche’s influence can be seen in many areas of modern society, including culture, politics, and art. His ideas have helped to break down traditional barriers between high and low art, and his ideas about creativity and “the will to power” continue to be explored by artists today.

 

Beyond Good and Evil

Beyond Good and Evil is a book by philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, first published in 1886. It draws on and expands the ideas of his previous work, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, but with a more critical and polemical approach. The work dramatically rejects the tradition of Western thought with its notions of truth and God, good and evil. Nietzsche  tries to demonstrate that the Christian world is steeped in a false piety and infected with a 'slave morality.

 

Slave morality is a term coined by Friedrich Nietzsche to describe a value system that is based on the guilt and fear that comes from the inferior individual’s awareness of their own inferiority. According to Nietzsche, masters create morality; slaves respond to master morality with their slave morality. Unlike master morality, which is sentiment, slave morality is based on ressentiment —devaluing what the master values and what the slave does not have.

 

Nietzsche characterizes slave moralities as being “fundamentally anti-life”. This morality does not promote creativity and striving for excellence by the individual. Instead, it encourages self-sacrifice and putting the interests of others ahead of your own. For Nietzsche, slave morality is life-denying instead of life-affirming, and hence completely unnatural. Slave morality, as portrayed by Islamic, Christian or Judaic moralities, is all about a separation of the mind and body, and hate and contempt for the meek physical body.

 

Master morality is a term coined by Friedrich Nietzsche to describe a value system that is based on the pride, wealth, fame, and power of the individual. Nietzsche defined master morality as the morality of the strong-willed. He criticizes the view that good is everything that is helpful, and bad is everything that is harmful. For strong-willed men, the “good” is the noble, strong, and powerful, while the “bad” is the weak, cowardly, timid, and petty. The essence of master morality is nobility.

 

Other qualities that are often valued in master morality are open-mindedness, courage, truthfulness, trustworthiness, and an accurate sense of one’s self-worth. Master morality begins in the “noble man”, with a spontaneous idea of the good; then the idea of bad develops as what is not good. In master morality, people define the good based on whether it benefits them and their pursuit of self-defined personal excellence.